- The presence of echolalia has actually been identified as a positive sign in persons with autism. Lovaas (1977) found that the presence of echolalia is an important prognostic indicator for future language growth. It appears that echolalia provides the 'raw material' for further language growth.
- As another Unixer (Linux and Mac OS), I can’t understand why another company hasn’t stolen Windows market share. Sure, back in the day, Apple was a small player and couldn’t compete for the corporate market. But now it has the biggest market cap in the world! And billions in cash to boot.
- The analyses of the clinical symptoms showed a trend for an association with rs12603582 (P=0.008; Pcorr=0.064) and positive results for the haplotype composed of rs15908 and rs12603582 (Pglcorr=0.048; Pindcorr=0.015), both in symptoms of echolalia.
Global Nav Open Menu Global Nav Close Menu; Apple; Shopping Bag +. Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder (or a group of disorders) marked by severely impaired thinking, emotions, and behaviors. Schizophrenic patients are typically unable to filter sensory stimuli and may have enhanced perceptions of sounds, colors, and other features of their environment.
Medically reviewed by Drugs.com. Last updated on March 2, 2021.
What is alcohol?
The term 'alcohol' has been synonymous with 'spirituous' liquids for the past 300 years. The history of alcohol consumption, along with codes limiting its consumption go back to 1700 B.C. There are four types of alcohol: methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol and butyl alcohol. Ethyl Alcohol, or ethanol (C2H5OH), is the type used in the production of alcoholic beverages. The other three types, methyl, propyl and butyl alcohol, if consumed can result in blindness and death, even in relatively small doses.
Alcohol, or ethanol, is the intoxicating agent found in beer, wine and liquor. Alcohol is produced by fermentation of yeast, sugars, and starches.1 Fruits such as grapes, and grains like barley and wheat are most commonly used for wine, beer and liquors. Other plants, such as the cactus or sugar cane may be used in liquor production.
Fourteen grams or about 0.6 fluid ounces of pure alcohol equals one “drink”. Examples of this amount may include one twelve ounce beer (5 percent alcohol), eight to nine ounces of malt liquor (7 percent alcohol), 5 ounces of wine (12 percent alcohol) or 1.5 fluid ounce “shot” of 80 proof liquor (40 percent alcohol).
In the U.S., The Federal Uniform Drinking Age Act, signed into law in 1984 raised the minimum drinking age to 21 years. All states now prohibit the purchase of alcohol by youth under the age of 21 years since 1988. It is illegal to sell or buy alcohol for anyone under the age of 21. According to The Office of the Surgeon General, alcohol is used by more young people in the United States than tobacco or illicit drugs, resulting in a serious public health concern.2
Alcohol (Ethanol) Pharmacology
Alcohol is a clear, volatile liquid that is highly soluble in water. The absorption of alcohol (ethanol) is decreased by food, especially fatty food. Absorption occurs primarily from the intestine. Alcohol distributes into body water. Blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) is dependent upon weight and body fat, amount and time frame of alcohol consumption, and food effects. Drinking alcohol over shorter time periods or in larger quantities and on an empty stomach will lead to a higher BAC. BAC is usually expressed in grams per deciliter (g/dL). In all 50 U.S. states, 0.08 g/dL would be equal to 0.08 percent BAC, or the legal limit at which one is no longer allowed to drive. Regulations are more strict in many states for drivers less than 21 years of age.
Alcohol is metabolized primarily (90 percent) in the liver. The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase converts alcohol to acetaldehyde, a sympathomimetic toxin often blamed for the ‘hangover’ effect. Acetaldehyde is further metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase to acetic acid, and eventually to carbon dioxide and water. Excretion of small amounts of alcohol also occur through the urine, lungs/breath, and sweat. Alcohol excretion by the lungs constitutes the basis for the Breathalyzer test given by law enforcement who may suspect drinking and driving.
Alcohol elevates the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) and reduces nerves signals along that neuronal pathway. Because of this action, alcohol is known as a central nervous system (CNS) depressant, and lowers both cognitive and physical capacities. Combination with other CNS depressants, such as opiates, barbiturates, or benzodiazepines can have additive and dangerous effects.
Health Hazards Due to Alcohol Abuse
Long-term alcohol misuse is associated with liver and cardiovascular disease, cancer, and nervous system damage as well as psychiatric problems such as depression, anxiety, and antisocial personality disorder.4
Alcohol, and its consumption can cause a number of marked changes in behavior. Even low doses significantly impair judgment and coordination. In small amounts, it can induce feelings of relaxation and tranquillity, suppress anxiety, and in some, inspire feelings of confidence. However, as the dose is increased, normally beyond six ounces of 100 proof alcohol, the pleasant euphoric feelings begin to give way to feelings of depression. Intoxication occurs because the liver is unable to metabolize more than one ounce of alcohol every hour. Therefore, when a person consumes more alcohol than the body can metabolize, intoxication occurs. Intoxication can generally last anywhere from one to 12 hours, and the after-effects (“hang-over”) of intoxication can last 24 hours or more.
Repeated use of alcohol can lead to increased tolerance that in turn leads to greater amounts required to achieve its desired effects. Once the body develops a dependence to alcohol, a sudden cessation of its intake is likely to produce withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal symptoms can be life-threatening and include severe anxiety, tremors, hallucinations, and convulsions.
Alcohol can be lethal if the amount of alcohol reaches a concentration above 460 milligrams of alcohol per 100 milliliters of blood (0.46 g/dL). Death from respiratory depression can occur with severe alcohol intoxication, and this can be hastened if alcohol is combined with CNS depressant medications.
Mixing alcohol with caffeine, either in premixed drinks or by adding liquor to energy drinks has become a common way for younger crowds to consumer alcohol. With this dangerous combination, drinkers may feel somewhat less intoxicated than if they had consumed alcohol alone. However, they are just as impaired and more likely to take risks. This drinking practice often takes place in and around college campuses.
Excessive use of alcohol can lead to alcoholism, or alcohol dependence. There are four cardinal symptoms in alcoholism: craving, loss of control, physical dependence, and tolerance. A clinician is able to diagnose alcoholism based upon a specific set of criteria published by the American Psychiatric Association and the World Health Organization.5
Drinking and driving results in numerous car accidents, injuries, and deaths each year. In 2009, there were over 10,800 crash fatalities with a driver BAC of 0.08 or higher, roughly 32 percent of total traffic fatalities for the year. Of these drivers, fifty-six percent had had a BAC of 0.15 or greater. However, since 1982, alcohol-related fatalities have dropped from 60 percent to 38 percent in 2009.6
Alcoholism is a treatable disease, but is considered a lifelong, chronic illness that requires counseling, support and often medication to control cravings. Relapses are a common problem for alcoholics. Risks for developing alcoholism include a genetic predisposition and lifestyle practices. Stress, ease of alcohol availability, and peer groups can increase the risk for alcoholism.
Extent of Alcohol Use and Abuse
The prevalence of alcohol use in the U.S. is widespread. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services 2010 Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Adults from the National Health Interview Survey, the percent of adults 18 years of age and older who were current regular drinkers (at least 12 drinks in the past 12 months) was 50.9 percent. The percent of adults who were current infrequent drinkers (1-11 drinks in the past 12 months) was lower, at 13.6 percent.7
Alcohol use and binge drinking among teens is a major public health concern. In 1999, alcohol use among high school students was reported in 1 out of every 2 students. In 2009, current alcohol use rates among high school students decreased to 42 percent, with 24 percent reporting episodic heavy or binge drinking.8
In 2009, 10 percent of high school students reported driving during the past 30 days when they had been drinking alcohol. Twenty-eight percent of students reported riding in a car or other vehicle during the past 30 days driven by someone else who had been drinking alcohol.8
Alcohol Use in Pregnancy
No amount of alcohol consumption can be considered safe in pregnancy. Alcohol is quickly transferred from the mother’s bloodstream to the fetus by the placenta and umbilical cord. Alcohol can be toxic to the developing baby, not only in the first three months of pregnancy when important organs are developing, but at any time, as brain development continues throughout pregnancy. Damage can also occur early in pregnancy before a woman might know she is pregnant. Although there is no known safe amount of alcohol that a woman can drink, the risk for miscarriage, birth defects, growth retardation and mental defects increase the more alcohol a pregnant woman consumes in one setting and the more frequently she drinks overall.
Women who are planning to become pregnant or who have recently learned they are pregnant should not drink alcohol. It is wise to seek the advice of a health care provider if alcohol cannot be stopped prior to conception and throughout pregnancy. Both the Centers for Disease Control and The U.S. Surgeon Generals Office warn women not to drink during pregnancy.
Mothers who drink alcohol excessively during pregnancy may give birth to infants with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) or fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) that can include irreversible physical and mental changes to the baby. FASD may include life-long learning disabilities, poor memory, hyperactivity, poor attention span, speech or language delays and other disorders. FAS may lead to growth retardation, mental disorders, skeletal and facial abnormalities, and heart defects. It is important not to drink at all while pregnant, prior to a planned pregnancy or if effective birth control is not used.9, 10, 11
Beneficial Effects of Alcohol
Consumption of small amounts of alcohol are reported to have beneficial cardiovascular health benefits, particularly the consumption of red wine. Red wine contains substances such as resveratrol and flavonoids that have antioxidant properties and may lend cardioprotective effects to the heart. However, only small amounts of wine or alcohol are suggested to be beneficial.
Antioxidants may help prevent heart disease by increasing levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL), or 'good' cholesterol and protecting against artery damage. Antioxidants in red wine are called polyphenols and may be protective for heart vessel linings. Resveratrol is a polyphenol that comes from the skins of red grapes. It is also theorized that the beneficial heart effects of red wine might be possible by simply drinking red or purple 100% grape juice or eating red grapes.
The cardioprotective effect alcohol may not be restricted to red wine. Some research studies have shown that moderate amounts of all types of alcohol benefit your heart, not just alcohol found in red wine. However, more research is needed. Moderate consumption of alcohol may raise HDL, reduce the formation of blood clots, and help prevent artery damage due to low density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol.
It is not suggested to start drinking for prevention of heart disease. Neither the American Heart Association nor the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute recommend starting to drink alcohol simply to prevent heart disease. Alcohol can lead to other health issues and may be addictive.
Only moderate drinking is recommended for those that already drink. Moderate drinking is defined as an average of two drinks a day for men and one drink a day for women. A drink is defined as 12 ounces (355 milliliters, or mL) of beer, 5 ounces (148 mL) of wine or 1.5 ounces (44 mL) of 80-proof liquor.12
Treatment Options for Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
The treatment of alcoholism requires strong family, social and medical support. Treatment for alcohol dependence usually involves a wide array of interventions, including stepped therapy, group support, individual counseling, and medications.
Some patients may opt to join Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), a group support organization available for men and women since 1935. Over 2 million recovered alcoholics in the United States, Canada, and other countries belong to AA.13
Medical treatments for alcohol dependence include three approved oral medications - disulfiram (Antabuse), naltrexone (Depade, Revia) and acamprosate (Campral) - and an injectable long-acting form of naltrexone (Vivitrol). Use of these medical treatments may work to help reduce drinking, relapses, and lead to full recovery and abstinence from alcohol. According to one review, naltrexone and acamprosate have strong evidence and are recommended as treatment options for alcohol dependence in conjunction with behavioral therapy. Disulfiram has not been shown to increase abstinence rates or decrease relapse rates or cravings compared with placebo, and it is not recommended for routine use in primary care.14
See also:
References:
- National Institutes of Health (NIH). National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Drugs of Abuse: Alcohol. Retrieved 1/17/2012. http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/alcohol
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Reduce Underage Drinking. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, 2007.
- Brick J. Alcohol Pharmacology. Intoxikon International. Alcohol and Drug Studies.
- Naimi TS, Brewer RD, Mokdad A, Denny C, Serdula MK, Marks JS. Binge drinking among US adults. JAMA 2003;289:70-75.
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Alcohol Alert. No. 30 PH 359 October 1995, Updated October 2000. Diagnostic Criteria for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence.
- Alcohol Alert. 2009 Drunk Driving Statistics. Accessed 1/17/2012. http://www.alcoholalert.com/drunk-driving-statistics.html
- Vital and Health Statistics. Series 10, Number 252. Summary Health Statistics for U.S. Adults. National Health Interview Survey, 2010. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Accessed 1/17/2012. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_10/sr10_252.pdf
- CDC. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance - United States, 2009. [pdf 3.5M] MMWR 2010;59(SS-5):1-142
- Office of the Surgeon General. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. News release. U.S. Surgeon General Releases Advisory on Alcohol Use in Pregnancy.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs). Alcohol Use in Pregnancy. Accessed 1/18/2012. http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/alcohol-use.html
- Mayo Clinic. Heart Disease. Red Wine and Resveratrol: Good for your heart? March 4, 2011. Accessed 1/18/2012. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/red-wine/HB00089
- Alcoholics Anonymous. Accessed 1/18/2012. http://www.aa.org
- Williams SH. Medications for Treating Alcohol Dependence. Am Fam Physician. 2005;72:1775-80. Accessed 1/19/2012. http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1101/p1775.html
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For the first section of review of the autism, there is lots of important information that we gathered about the autism that in a way helps the research. In this research the main target is to help the autistic children treatment with assist of the humanoid robots which are currently use NAO robot as the main tool. There will be some explanation will be covered in this section about the autism.
What is autism?
The term of autism are already used since 100 year ago. This word is come from the Greek word 'autos' where it’s mean 'self'. This term are used to mention the personal characteristics of person with this ability where always by themselves all the time without making a social interaction with others. In 1908, Eugen Bleuler was using this term for patients with symptoms of schizophrenia where the symptoms are slightly same as autism. Then the psychiatrist from America, Leo Kanner began to use the term of 'autism' for the children that he studied where to explain the behaviour of the children which is got a problem with the social interaction. After that, Hans Asperger was written about a group of children he called autistic psychopaths because the children he studied are resembled with what characteristic of the child describe by Leo Kanner. But for the case that he studies the most of the patient that are among of the person that got the ability same as the autistic person, but in term of the intelligence they generally got the normal as others person and for language development are near to the normal person. In the other word it can be describe that this person are better than person with the autism in their ability function. From that he named the symptom as the Asperger's syndrome [1] [2][3].
Not everyone knows these kind of symptom even though it already existed long time ago. It is some kind of brain developmental disability. Mostly this symptom will effect to person’s normal brain function and also the communication include social interaction skill that supposed to be needed for themselves for facing all the challenge in their whole life. People with this ability mostly got difficulties with communication and social skills and they also have unusual behaviours and interests. Because of these difficulties, person with autism got a problem with getting a friend and also to communicate with another person. Everything what their want to share is difficult to understand or reach by the normal person unless they already expose by the therapy that train them to communicate.
Usually this special ability can be detected when the obvious signs of autism and symptoms of autism appear to the individual when their age attempt in between 2 and 3 years [4]. From the latest report of Health Ministry the roughly estimated of the children with autism born are one in 1000 children in Malaysia and the result shown that four times more likely to affect boys compared to girls [5]. Autism is the permanent symptom that cannot be removed as their wanted. For this moment there are not suitable cure that can be used for them. But for them to overcome or adapt the challenge that have to faced they must go through with the earlier diagnosis, therapies, and interventions from person that have the experience with this treatment such as therapist. All this method is needed in order to reduce symptoms and increase skills and abilities of the person with this special ability.
There are lots of therapies that can be applied to them, so that they can learn and then can adapt the entire learning thing in their routine life time. Some therapies that can be applied are social skill therapy, physical therapy, play therapy, speech therapy, developmental therapies and etc. Most of this therapy can be describe as the best treatment especially for the person with autism; most of the research that applied this therapy treatment for the patient mostly got the positive feedback compared with negative feedback. Patient that got through with the therapy mostly at least got a little improvement in their ability and also in the social interaction with other person.
Symptoms[6]
In this section will be discussed about the symptoms of the autism. There is several kind of disability that can be recognized in person with autism, practically there are some common symptoms that can be appears for the person with this ability such as:
Social Interaction/Skills
For the autistics person the most difficulties that faced by them are in the social interaction skills. While they interact with other persons, they will be faced a problem in understanding or using the social expression like an eye contact, facial expression, gesture and etc. to make an interaction. This problem can be detected since they in early age. This problem not only gives a problem to them but also to the person surround that want to interact with them. The social problem that happened to the person with autism mainly will bring difficulties for them in sharing what they have learned or what they feel. That behaviour makes them difficult in getting a friend or maintaining the friendships among them or with others. Besides that in term of body contact, mostly they will resistance to being cuddling or touched like normal person unless that person are closes enough to them such as their parent or siblings. As for person with autism they prefer to be alone in they own world rather than being disturbed by others that makes their quality life distracted.
Communication
Communication skills are related to the language development of someone. The ability is depending on the social and also intellectual development. This kind of disturbing happen to them because of the normal brain function affected by this symptom .For the person with autism this sign are normally happened to them. This is one of the sign actually appear or recognized for the person with autism when their age reach 3 years old. They will get problems in verbal and non-verbal communication because of them lack in speech development. In order to communicate with others they mostly will use a simple or incomplete sentence. They will face problems in starting or maintaining a conversation because of difficult in understanding the language that used while making interaction.
Sometime for person with autism they will use the repetitive language pattern that usually have no meaning or not related to the conversation topic with others. For the example they count one to five repeatedly or they also repeat the words that they heard over and over as much as they like without thinking the others. This kind of condition scientifically called as echolalia, which means the automatic repeating back the entire thing that is said. The lack of nonverbal communication skill give a lot of problem to this person, they unable to used gesture like a pointing to an object in order to make other person to understand what they try to convey in their speech. Everything that they want to tell mostly cannot be understood by others that make them to make inappropriate behaviours or abnormal use of pitch, intonation, rhythm or stress while speaking. They also got problems in understanding the simple question that given to them or when asked about the direction term.
Behaviour
In term of behaviour the pattern that usually used for person with autism are also repetitive same as the communication skill problems. All the activities that they done mostly in repetitive way where they will concentrate on the activity such as flapping arm , spinning the object over and over again. They usually fascinated with the rotation object like a wheel on the toy car. The autistics person usually have an obsession with objects, they like to make varied kind of collection like a bottle, box and etc. as their habits. The obsession with the difference object are the common thing that happened to the person with the autism, it seem like a complicated habits but in their routine the thing that they chance still be repeated as same as before and that is the most valuable time for them that cannot be change as we like, if that happen they will become upset or angry. Besides that they also like to rearrange and line up thing that they collected over and over. If that happen it could make them to do an inappropriate behaviours such as abnormal use of pitch or others unpredictable thing that can cause injury. Besides that they also have difficulties in changing or transferring their activity from one area to another, because of the complicated habits that done in their routine.
Robotics
The terms of robot first used in public are in 1920 by Karel Čapek in the science fiction play named R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word of robot actually from the Czech language 'Robota' which means servitude or forced labour where they done the entire thing that being instructed to them by their master [7]. After that the words of 'automaton' or 'android' have being replaced by this new term for in the language usage all around the world [7][8].
In 1942 the rules of three laws for the robotics have being introduced by Isaac Asimov in the science fiction of short story entitle 'Runaround'. The three laws that he mentioned firstly are about the robot not gave any harm to human being through its action. Second law are the robot are obeying all the instruction or orders that given to it by the human being as long as the instructions are not overlapped with the first law. And the last law that he mentioned the robot should protect its owns existence while its can except where the protection are not break the first and second laws that have being mentioned in his writing. From the laws that have being introduced and many improvements had made in his stories , then he start to make an alteration and elaboration the original laws for the further development on how robots can interact with humans or each other’s. Then he’s come up with the fourth or zeroth law where the laws described that the robot must not harm humanity.
Nowadays there are lots of task that given to the robot to do the jobs in many field which is in the industrial robots, domestic or household robots, medical robots, service robots, military robots, entertainment robots, space robots and lastly in the field of hobby and competition robots [9]. Besides that the group of robot also can be divided in to the group based on the function and design that makes it making a task whether it is able to move or not, big or small. Each of them can be dividing into [10];
Mobile Robots where it is usually can perform the task that cannot be done by human either that area cannot be reach or that place are dangerous. The mobile robot can be categories into two which is Rolling Robots and Walking Robots.
Stationary Robots also one of the types that can be discussed, the robot are not just used to do the task for the human to explore areas and also use to imitate a human behaviour that can make a perform the repetitive task that supposed to be done by the human without moving an inch. Because of the human got a limit in performed a jobs. By then the imitative robot are really useful for that kind of jobs because robot never grows tired, it will perform its duty day and night without ever complaining.
Autonomous Robots are the robot that can perform the task without a supporting from human being. The word supporting here are means that the robot actually got its own brain that can be rely on while doing the task. The robot runs programs that give them the opportunity to them in performing the best solution or action depended on the surrounding. They can learn on how to walk and avoid obstacles that block their movement.
Remote-control Robots are the autonomous robot where the memory and the brain capacity are limited. That needed in order to perform a complicated task that cannot be performing by the normal autonomous robot. The complicated task are still be perform by the human being where have the real brain power in order to control the robot like a denote a bomb in the military areas.
Virtual Robots are just a programs where can make a simulation of the real robot or performing the repetitive task controlled by the software in the computer. The virtual robots are the special robot that developed in order to generating the searching of the World Wide Web. Most of the virtual robots are countless in the internet that crawling from site to site where they collect the information on the websites and sending the information to the search engines.
Robotics are the system where produced by the human kind that can move by themselves. All the action that allowed them to move is influenced by the helps of the programming systems or electronic circuitry [10][11]. The robotic systems are component or device that can move around in the environment and making interactions either social or physical. The robot can cause the physical interaction through actuation action and then it can take an effect from the physical interaction by measuring using the sensing. The actuation and sensing element are the important element that needed for the robot to make them to control its mechanical body. With the controller component that possess by the robot it can helps the robot to do some sub activities such as modelling, regulating and planning like mention in [11]. For the robot it should have the characteristic [12];
Sensing is the most important characteristic for the robot to enable them to sense the surroundings. To make the robot the sense ability it should equipped with sensors such as light sensors, touch and pressure sensors and many more that can help the robot aware with its environment. For the Movement characteristics is needed in order to give an opportunities for the robot to move around its environment whether rolling on wheel or any method that could help it’s to move. In term of energy, as the robot it is the important sources that needed to determine its lifetime. Robot needs to be able to power itself by many ways such as solar powered, electrically powered, battery powered that depend on the purpose of the robot developed. And the last important characteristic that needed for the robot is Intelligence. The intelligent of the robot are depending on the programming systems that enters the platform. A programmer is the person who gives the robot its 'smarts.' The robot will have to have some way to receive the program so that it knows what it is to do. There lots of improvement in the robotics systems had make nowadays in effort to help human life style. The development of the humanoid robot with autonomous and semi- autonomous robot are the famous research that make in order to improve the interaction relationship in between the robot and human being.
Humanoid Robot
Humanoid robot is one of the autonomous robots where it placed in that categorize because of its ability which are the same as the autonomous ones. Beside the ability what makes the humanoid robot special because of the design of the body or the outer appearance that look like just like mare human. All the characteristics that possessed on human are also it’s got even though it just a simple one. To become the humanoid robot the developer not needed to equip the robot with all the part that human possess like a head , arm ,legs and others, but when the robot just have one of the part it’s also can be called as the humanoid robot as long as it look like a human. What make the humanoid robot differ than the others robots are the capability of the robot to make an interaction either with human or each other.
Same as the normal robot, the humanoid robot also needed the same components or part in order to function. The parts that it’s needed are the actuator, sensors, body and also programing that became the most important thing that controls the robot. Each of the parts is needed for the different functions. For the example we take the sensor, the sensor are the devise that used in the body of the robots. There are many kinds of sensor that attach in the robot such as pressure and touch sensor, light sensors, sonar sensors and many more. All the sensor are used so that the robot could sense the dangers or the obstacles that appears when they got involved to the environment and then all the sense that detected will be send to the software which is programs or in other words the intelligent of the robot that created by the programmer then makes a decision to perform the solution.
The design of these kind of robot like a human being make people that want to interact with it feel save comfortable either for the young or the elders. The latest design of the humanoid robot are focused on the interaction had make between the robot and the human. The term for this interaction are called as the human robot interaction (HRI). The way of the interaction are improved by time to time that makes the interaction between them become more enjoyable like having a normal interaction with a person.
The human studies of the HRI are related to the relationship on the human and also the robot and also the reaction that give influences each other while interacting. The robot especially a humanoid robot that developed with the HRI are really important and have a higher potential in the therapy session that can be used as the tool to train or teach the normal or the special person that got the a problems in the brain functions like a person with autism in order to help them in understanding and detect the emotion that created and also to develop the social human behaviours that cannot be reach by themselves [13]. Nowadays there are lots of the researches conducted in order to create the humanoid robot for many areas purpose like academics, entertainment, research and many more. For the case study that we created, the humanoid robot that used is the NAO where the potential of the robot that we see as the best from the other developed robot for a moment for the robot therapy that give to children with autism.
NAO[14]
The humanoid robot that widely used for this moment is NAO, most of them recently are used in the research and academic included the developer purpose. In this section we will discuss on the NAO robot. NAO are one of the humanoids robots which are the autonomous types. NAO is the humanoid that possess with the head, arms, legs and others part that make its looks like a little boys. The height of the NAO is about 23 inches with the actuator and the motors that connected each part of the body that make it can move freely with the 25 degrees of freedom (DOF). This robot consists of many sensors that make it functioned well like a pressure and tactile sensors, sonar rangefinder for distance estimation, Information Retrieval (IR) emitters and receivers.
The frequency of the central processing unit (CPU) that used in the NAO is 1.6 gigahertz where the manufacturer used the processor from the Intel Company named as Intel Atom. Same as the computer the robot also needed the operating system (OS) to control the NAO programs, for the NAO the compatible OS is Linux, Windows and Mac OS. The needed of the power supply are really important for the robot to operating, so that the NAO robot are used the power supply from the 27.6-watt-hour battery that can be varies by the usage, setting and operating condition, for the active use the robot can sustain until an hour, while 90 minutes for normal use, depending on the usage.
Figure 2.1 NAO Robots with the Part Names [14]Besides that what makes this robot special it is because it have the ability to communicate with the person thanks to the built-in speaker and voice synthesizer device that acts as communication device of the robots that use to recognize and track voice and sounds. Meanwhile for the talking abilities the microphones are used. And for the eyes the NAO robot are supported with the cameras that used to recognize faces and objects, besides used to track and analyse its surrounding. To make the eyes of the robot function correctly to detect faces or the object the sets of algorithms had been used that construct in the platform that control the NAO. For the programming language that use in the interfacing purposes compatible language that can be use are C++, Python, Urbi, and etc. that depend on the users that has to be suitable or compatible with the OS platform.
The NAO robot is equipped with the tactile sensors that installed at two of its body parts which are on the head and also at the both hands that use for user to give the command when by touch it. These sensors also can be set as the shut off button when the user placing their hand on the NAO robot or the button to start the module that uploaded to the NAO. Besides that in order to avoid the obstacle or something that will blocking the robot ways the manufacturer already placed the two transmitters and receivers each on NAO body so that it can identify the distances of surrounding objects within 70 centimetres of distance.
The humanoid robot NAO not a statics robot that just stay on the one spot then making jobs, but NAO is the robot where can make a movement and walk around like a human’s with not a straight but also others movement because of the sensors and also the actuator joint with the certain degree of freedom used in the NAO construct that makes it stable to walk on many different surfaces.
The NAO robot also compatible with the network connections which is Wi-Fi and Ethernet that makes NAO to connect with the network wherever it placed either at home or other places as long as that place are supplies with the network connectivity. With this connectivity the NAO robots will be supplies with the up to date information such as the weather forecast or the using the software converting the language used that directly connected to the internet while communicate.
Beside the Wi-Fi and Ethernet the NAO also equipped with infrared connection where it can be used for the special task that given to the such as turn off the television with its owns infrared connection and also to control other device that equipped with the infrared connections that can be done based on the tasks that given to them by programmer. In term if task, for the NAO system can be control by using the special software that provided by the manufacturer called as NAO Choregraphe Module that can be used to set the movement or the tasks for the NAO that want to creates likes a sing a song, move with other gestures and others. All of the task are depends on the programmer that creates the programming for them.
Figure 2.2: NAO’s Choregraphe ModuleAssistive Robotics(AR)
The applications of Assistive Robotics are widely used in order to investigate the application of the robotics with their involvement in the field health care and education. These investigations are important to achieve the best procedure solution to recovery for persons with impairments due to various diseases especially related to the brain function like autism.
The assistive robotics is focus on developing robotic aids for supporting independent persons who have chronic or degenerative limitations and also who got problems with brain disabilities as therapy and supportive tools [15]. AR are related to many application areas that already being exposed by the past researcher in effort to improve human comfort.
From the study that conducted by Mason and Christensen [16] mentioned that assistive robot are developed from different application areas in order help human for their life such as:
Manufacturing-In this area the robotics systems are widely deployed for the manufacturing process. Most of the factory using this technology for them to improve the production rate of the product. They always make research for continues to advance by develop new fundamental approach in the technology of the robotics. Every day there are always new development are obtained.
Medical and healthcare are commonly used of the Assistive Robotics for the patient especially in term of Recovery and Rehabilitation. The patients that usually involve in this kind of treatment are the one that got the problems with the physical disability. The robot will assist them with the suitable method that can be applied to them by the aids of the robot till the progress achieved. Beside that the other researches also mention that this area also covered the application of mobility problems and also used for elder care [17][16].
Service-in general the services are that used the robotics assistive is in both professional and domestic services. Professional service usually used robots in logistics, agriculture, cleaning, and also mining sector but for the Domestic service robots can perform tasks where humans regularly perform around their homes such as vacuuming, gardening, mowing the lawn and pool maintenance [18].
Socially Robot (SR)
Socially Robot (SR) is term that used in order to describe the social interaction that involved in between robot and human. This term are first used by the researcher to make studies of describing robot which is following human social characteristic such as embodiment, emotion, communication, and etc. [19]. SR are operates or given task as the partner or assistance for the human to communicate or making interaction.
By refer to the research done by Dautenhahn and Billard, they mentioned that Social interactive robots can be defined as the agents that can interact with each other and also environment then interpret the world in terms of their own experience that their possess, they stands for explicitly Communicate with and learn from each other[20].
Socially Assistive Robotics(SAR)
Based on the study that had done by Seifer and Mataric, the Socially Assistive Robot (SAR) is defining as the intersection between the Assistive Robot and Socially Robot. SAR and AR are similar in term of assist, but for the detailed SAR is more to the social than physical interaction. Meanwhile in the perspective of the social interaction SAR is more similar to SR in term of their focus, which is to develop and also create an interaction with a user in purpose to give assistance especially in the field of treatment [21].
Nowadays these kinds of interaction are concerned especially for the person that doesn’t have an effort or energy to help them including in process of recovery and rehabilitation. For this study we focused the SAR on helping the autistic children where got a problem in their brain development. It is because some of these children are showing their enthusiasm and mimicking character when their face or go through interaction with the robot [22]. SAR in this case can be used as assist for the user to improve the mental health of child by reducing stress, loneliness and depression that happened to them [23]. As mentioned before the SAR is only making a social rather than physical interaction. This can give the best opportunity for to develop the interaction between human and robot without giving harm while interacts with the robot. The developments of the SAR are widely improved and popular in the research area such as the robotics, medicine, neuroscience and etc.
The SAR developments are firstly used in order to help elderly by constructing robot-pet companion for them to help in reducing depression and stress [24]. The SAR are really beneficially not only for the elderly but it also can be useful to everybody include individuals with physical impairments, person that goes through the rehabilitation therapy and also for the individuals that got the problems with brain disorder by using them as the tools or medium for therapy, training and also can be used as the special education. The SAR are really part to create when involved the interaction with the human, there a lots of possibilities has to be consider before it been constructed. In the paper that done by David Feil-Seifer and Maja J Matarić [25], they have taken several core of ethics principle that establish for the medical to be implement in the SAR development. The ethics principles that have being discussed are beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy and justice where they try to examines either its affect the applications of SAR. For the robot the appearances are really important to get a higher expectation from people that interact with it, human-like appearance are the better for them [24].
David Feil-Seifer did mentioned that the ways of children with autism and robots are different compared with the interaction them with person or toys [26][27]. But the problem that occur from this interaction is that the respond that given by the robot while interacting to the kids. He did also mention that this kind of interaction is the challenging problems to make the robot to understand the behaviour of the child with autism. There are a lots of development had make in the robotics development in order to find the solution on this problems. To resolve this problem the research had make among the researchers and enable them to used fully autonomous robots for interact with any children especially children with autism by focusing on the free-form behaviour that showed by children.
The interaction that make in between child and robot can become as a therapeutic aid that can help people especially children with autism. The therapy should be aimed for them in order to develop and improve their ability while interacting. The aims of the therapy are to encourage of the turn-taking behaviour, human-human and human –robot interaction and also aims for getting or detecting children distress [27]. Autistics child characteristic are different compare to normal children, not all of them can accept the behaviour of the robot that interact with them. In the studies paper made by David Feil-Seifer mentioned that for the autistics child there were specific morphological and behaviour of the robot are annoying and distracting for them. From there they to find new methods by detecting automatically the negative behaviour of the child then minimize distress experienced by giving the properly response while interacting with robot.
Robot and Autism.
In order to make a connection between these humanoid and autistics children for the treatment, the research that we conducted had consider all possibility and also the consequences that can be happen during the treatment because of the condition of the autistics children which is differ with the normal child on their characteristics. The used of the robot as the tools to assistive children with autism are really useful and got its own potential in the treatment because some of them will show their behaviour while interacting with the robot [28]. For the person with autism the social interaction with the robot is more suitable compared interaction with people in term of behaviour. It is because for them people’s social behaviours are hard to predict and also confusing compared to the robot behaviour which is always can be control and be managed according to the instruction given to them with precisely[28][29]. In this section we will take a look for the several researches that conducted by the past researcher that using robot as the tool to give a therapy to the autistics person and also that research that make the most precious discovery related to the therapy session that used the robot assistive. From the finding there will be some info that can be used that can help in the current research that we conduct.
The robotic systems are firstly used in the treatment for the autism since 1976 by Sylvia Weir and Ricky Emanuel using a mobile turtle-like robot named LOGO at university of Edinburgh [30]. Since then, these methods of treatment become most famous topic that chosen by the student in university for their research to develop and improve this method of treatment till now. Their comes up with differences and new development from all the research that already developed and all the data that collected in their research has become a reference for the next generation to improve and also develop new research. The LOGO robots are used to encourage communication skill on the person they studied which is seven years old boys with symptoms of autism. The research reported that its give a positive result based on the respond that child with the robot. Even though the project are not directly give an interaction with the robot and not operated autonomously, but from this research of studies it give a hopes that this kind of treatment can give a new path for the next generation researcher to develop the new improvement by using the robot as the medium tools to gives therapy for the person with autism [30].
Echolalia Mac Os 11
The research had made by Hideki Kozima and Cocoro Nakagaw using the robot called as KEEPON to interact with the child. The research conducted to prove that the interaction between children with autism and robot are difference depends on the individual age. From the research they obtained, the result shown that mostly child that age below 1 year they make an interaction with the robot only by using hands and mouth and did not care about the robot ability. But for the child with age 1year old they make an interaction with the robot based on the robot attentive and emotive actions. And the research on 2 year old child shows that they want to create a social interaction with the robot by showing something to them and also make a body contact with it [22]. This research also show the improvement of the autistic children when they interact with the robot. Mostly they showed to their trainers what they have learned. This become most important finding that will be used or implemented for the research and then applied the suitable module or task that given to the robot in order to interact based on age of the person that become our subject.
Figure 2.3: KEEPON [22]
Then the research of therapy also use the application of robot named as ROBOTA. It is one of the humanoid robot dolls that small in size with around 45 cm in high. The main body of the doll are covered with the electronic board with the motor that drive the legs, arms and also for the head its move by using one degree of freedom. Mainly this robot are used for develop children in movement, music and speech. The purpose of this study is to improve the social interaction skills and imitation ability of the autistic person. The tests have been making with four children with autism. They were exposed repeatedly with the robot that applied the basic imitative and turn-taking games for several months. Along with this test the video of the documenting had been recorded during children make interaction with the robot. From the video that recorded they evaluated the four behavioural criteria including eye gaze, touch imitation and lastly on the position of children with the robot (near). They have comes up with the qualitative and quantitative analysis. From the first analysis which is qualitative analysis on observed all the activity of the children that related to the interaction behaviour, they revealed further aspects of the social skill interaction of the children such as the ability of imitation, eye gaze, touching and else. Besides that, from this analysis they also can indicate the level of communication skill that showed personally by the children based on the recorded video data. For the second analysis it’s showed an increase in duration of pre-defined behaviours towards the later trials. In this studies show that the repetitive exposure the humanoid robot will increase the basic interaction social skill of the children.
Figure 2.4: TROY [31]
The next simple design of humanoid robot can be discuss in this paper are the robot called as TROY. It is the robot that can perform the simple and programmable behaviour. It is the simple robot with two arms with four degree of freedom that can make it raised and lowered the arms and other action. The robot also equipped with the 7 inch screen where it presented as the head of the robot where the researcher put the face to display the face expression like sad, happy or other neutral emotions. The robot is designed in order to encourage the imitation and also turn-taking behaviours for the person with autism. In these studies they mentioned that the period the interaction in between the robot and child should not exceed then 20% from the available therapy time. The rest of the time should be the therapy for the child and human interactions [31]. In this case they try to emphasize that the interaction in between the child and robot has to be less than the interaction with a person in process to train. In the research they got the positive result on the low dose robotics treatment for the child with autism in their interaction skills. In the therapy that they conducted they begin the therapy step by step started with the interaction between the child and robot then proceed with the interaction between the child, therapist and the robot and the rest of the 80% of the therapy session is the interaction between human and child. In this case they just used the robot as the tool to help a child to develop social skill.
Figure 2.5: Children with autism interacting with the Labo-1 robot [24]
The next research that used the robot as the tools to encourage the development of children with autism are the mobile robot named as LABO-1. The robot consists of the infrared sensor that act as like a sonar to avoid the obstacle that block the robot from moved and also pyro-electric sensor that used to detect and following the human. The robot movement are very slow to avoid any unpredictable thing from happened to the child. In this research the subject are two children with autism to give social interacting training or therapy. The result of the test showed the positive result when the children give a good response while playing with the robot. The researcher also mentioned that the child played with the robot for the long time and did not scare while interacting with the robot at a close distance [24].
The used of the robot as the medium in helping person with autism are just to help them in develop their abilities and facilitate human contact not to replace them from interact with other person [32]. In this research, the study will be related to the robot therapy where person with autism will be expose with the interaction to the robot where help them to improve the ability. The involved of humanoid robot named NAO are really suitable for the research, it is because of the characteristic as mentioned before are suitable used for the research especially when it interact with the autistic person and also for the normal person. There are researcher mentions that for the autistic children the behaviour of the NAO robot which is repetitive and the movement that has being simplified are really suitable and can help them in training of the social skill [33]. These applications of NAO are really suitable because most of the characteristic are significantly showed that its really consistent with the behaviour of the autistic autism which is cannot faced the complicated thing in during their skills development.
Nowadays there is lots of research that used NAO as the tool to find new development in many areas especially in term of medication or robot therapy. Robot therapy is therapy that used a robot as assistant in the treatment. The ways of the robot used are depend on the purpose of the module or tasks that create by the researcher for the research. The suitable module of the robot should have a justification on why it has to be that way and what going to happen when used in the therapy in order to pull attention person with autism to involve in interaction with the robot. The entire task given for the NAO is really important for the therapy to ensure whether it is succeeded or not in the treatment. The improvement of the task done by the researcher should be improved from time to time in order to create the best task for the NAO for the therapy.
Graphical User Interface ( GUI)
Mac Os Versions
In this section it will be the most important parts that where the reviews are going decided what are the most important thing has to be included in the GUI development that has to be interfacing each other between networking and the database, beside help the user to solve the problem in develop new module or other thing that related to the program for the treatment and then achieve the objective also the aims of the research.
Echolalia Mac Os Catalina
The GUI developments are really important for the user especially to someone with a little knowledge in the computer development. The interface will guide the users through different stages towards the accomplishment of the tasks. The multi-task and difficult interface could bring another problem for the users to improve their skills. In this review it will guide about something that related to the best GUI development for the research.
GUI is the most common thing that we going to use when involve with the machine and human interaction like computer. This interface is really important or became the medium for the human to interact with the machine with more effective. The interaction just involve the use of the picture or images as the button command rather than the texts command that can give the confusion for the beginners or non-technical person that low in the computer knowledge. The entire image or the icons will represent as the action button that available on the GUI application that usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements that make the OS to relocated or find the sources of the command that being done in the text command. GUI are introduced in the reaction of the command loops of the command-line interface (CLI) where required the external equipment like a keyboard to type the command. The commands were only showed the command line interface with numbers and text with the complicated operation that can be completed by using the shortcut by manipulating a symbols or the short sequence of words.
Echolalia Mac Os X
There is a research of the GUI development that has being conducted to prove that the uses of the icons for the instruction are really effective rather than others commands. In that research they have make survey on the 10 people between 20 till 30 years olds that operates the interface that been develop. The result of the surveys showed that the used of the icon or others characters that represent the operation of the application attract users then enhance the usability of the practical GUI’s [34]. The best GUI is the ones that have the characteristic of user friendly that makes everybody feel satisfy after using it. The user friendliness can be defined as the interface that will guide the users through stage to another in order to accomplish the tasks, so that users can interact more with the tasks and less with the system [35]. To achieve the user friendliness there are several characteristics that have to be included are [35];
The first thing that have be included in the interface are the design of the interface has to be suitable for everyone and also good looking interface. It really needed so that the user feels it will work better and more confident while using the application. Besides that the users also can feel more satisfied and comfortable with the interface while read the interface with strong contrast between text and background. Besides that the use of the basic words also give an effect on the users interface, users will find an interface to be friendly if it displays information in their native reading direction or in their native language, without using any profession specific terms that not everyone can understand. Accessible also can be the ones of the characteristics should be on the user friendly interface. The interface has to be developing so that everybody can access the interface without having a complicated. A user friendly interface should be built upon the human visual and cognitive capabilities that can be achieved by using knowledge of familiar objects that can makes users find it easier to learn and use. The user interface also has to consistent in style and wordings.
Mac Os Mojave
The GUI is divided in to two groups which is computer based and web-based. In this research the GUI that we going to explore are more to the web-based where we have to create a website for the children with the autism, so that everybody could accesses and then can sharing the information that they got from the research that conducted by themselves. There will be the discussion on the related topics on the therapy process of the robot named as NAO with the children with the autism, besides sharing the module that has being created.
In the process of the developing the GUI creation the requirement of the software is needed. In order to design the interface with the user friendly interface all the characteristic has being study through the exploring the review that have make by the past researcher. At this moment the best software that consider as the best in the interface design are Adobe Photoshop where it can be used as the tools in editing the design till the final satisfaction be achieved. But in order to create the website the best software could be use is MySQL. The use of the MySQL software is identify the best tools because of it is the open source software where almost all the website developer are used these software besides it is the freeware software. Then for the programming language the really suitable and compatible with the MySQL are PHP software, where it’s also one of the freeware software that easy to obtain. The GUI development for this research will focus on the users with the lack in the knowledge of the computers. Everybody could share the information that they want to share without any problems and then use the information well.